Organizational studies Essay Example for Free

Organizational studies Essay The Functional -Structural Approach has dominated organizational studies. Describe and discuss the paradigm fully and assess the challenge posed to it by Postmodernism. Introduction Functional approach Is considered the second very essential paradigm In psychology. Functional structural approach in psychology deals with cognitive processes that Incorporate consciousness (Burrell and Gareth, 41). William James the father of functional approach came up to this paradigm from a viewpoint that functional approach in psychology is very important biological function. He also postulated that sychologists ought to understand the functions related to cognition so as to comprehend how mental processes in humans operate. Organizational studies is the study that Involves examining how individuals build organizational processes, structures, and practices, moreover, it studies how these phenomenon in turn shape social Interactions and creates organizations that impacts individuals (Knights, and Glenn, 252). Remarkably, organizational studies incorporate diverse areas that consider varied features of the organization. Arguably, cognitive oriented psychologists often describe human behavioral activities rom the perspective of mental constructs; they argue that classical conditioning as a means of behavior change is due the construction of associations within the individuals cognition. Postmodernism in philosophy is a movement that is very precarious of the Introductory assumptions and the propensity of western philosophy. Generally, postmodernism emphasizes the significance of personalization, power relationships and discourse in construction of the world views and truth (Alvesson, 5). It can be described as a set of strategic. critical, and rhetorical activities incorporating the use f concepts that Include trace, repetition and hyper reality to subvert other concepts such as Identity epistemic certainty, unlvoclty of meaning and historical progress. Following the present dominance of functional structural approach in organizational studies currently. this paper will present how functional structural approach has dominated organizational studies. Moreover, it will discuss this paradigm fully and further assess the challenge posed to It by postmodernism. Functional Structural Approach As a structural tneory, Tunctlonal structural approacn vlews tne organlzatlon In tne ociety being more important than any other individual within the society. Arguably, functional structural approach is a top down concept; individuals in the long run become products of societal influences as they become socialized by the institutions around them that include media, religion, family, and education. Functional approach is very important in the study of organizational studies because it offers a perspective of viewing the society as a set of interconnected parts that in the long run function as a whole. It is therefore of great importance to acknowledge he importance of functional structural approach in the study of organizational studies. Other than explaining the cognitive operations of human beings, the functional structural approach offers a platform of understanding the relationships that exist between these parts in the society hence contributing towards the maintenance of society. Through the notion of structural functionalism approach, the use of cognitive analogy in the tradition of Spencer, Comte and Durkheim has greatly influenced upon sociological thought (Burrell and Gareth, 43). By deriving upon the concepts of interrelationships between parts, holism, functions and needs the biological equivalence has been constructed in varied was to develop a social science perspective firmly linked to the sociology of regulation. Following the functional structural approach, the study of organizational studies have simplified in that functionalist believe that sociological matters should be approach from a perspective of scientific facts, a concept otherwise known positivism. According to the father of positivism Anguste Comte, functionalism should be based n primary facts and objectively weighed hence making it possible to note issues in the society that impact individuals hence providing a framework for innovation in law and implementing new legislation (Siebert, 36). The functional structural approach has been established to be of great significance in the study of organizational studies in that, by adopting the use of methodology in natural science and focusing on direct observable social facts, one is able to understand how parts that exist in the society function, hence the organizational behavior, organizational culture, organizational psychology, and organizational heory. Functional structural approach in sociology stresses the significance of the existing interdependence among various patterns and institutions within a social setting for its long term subsistence. According to †°mile Durkheim, functionalism is essential in understanding the utility of cultural and social traits, because it enlightens its contribution to the maneuvering of the overall system. Functionalism is therefore of great importance to the study of social behavior, organizational culture, organizational psychology, and organizational theory, because It OTTers a platTorm 0T crltlcally revlewlng tne reasons Denlna ce rtaln Denavlor patterns based on cognitive analysis. Arguably, functional approach is very significant in the study of attitudes (Herbert, 10). Understanding attitudes is very important to organizational studies. From a psychological point of view, the reasons behind changing attitudes are derived from the functions they accomplish to the individual specifically incorporating value expression, ego defense and knowledge. It is therefore very important to note the dominance of functional approach not only to the study of patterns in the society but lso to the changing attitudes from a cognitive perspective. In the recent years, organizational studies have been established to be increasingly important in social scientific investigation. Based on the number of research studies related to functional structural approach, it is important to note that organizational studies have claimed a better part of the functional approach (Crowther and Green, 50). Most research these days seeks a functional explanation of organizational studies, thus a societal functioning. What is the future of functional approach in organizational studies? Despite the opposition encountered by scientifically oriented organizational studies from some British organization researchers, their support on qualitative studies failed to yield credible knowledge. Their qualitative studies on organizational studies were not incorporated in the literature of organization studies because it produced no generalized knowledge. Following the failure of qualitative studies from these researchers, there has been a great increase in the number of researchers that incorporate the use of functional approach when researching issues that relate to rganizational studies. Majority of these researchers are oriented to the functional structural approach. Remarkably, the functional paradigm in psychology have hampered the rapid development of organizational studies, this will benefit the future due to the increased use of cognitive perspectives to in understanding patterns and structures in the society. Arguably, organizational studies will always provide knowledge about the performance within a society to the succeeding generations by incorporating and applying the use of functional approach hence making progress in social science. According to Hawthorne studies, functional approach has been helpful and dominant in studying and analyzing the behavior patterns among employees (Burrell and Gareth, 131). The conclusion made from these studies emerged based on conceptual scheme explanation of employee complaint which was determined drawing explanations from the functional approach. It is important to note that functional approach has dominated research pertaining to industrial problems, the interface which occurs due to the changes in the physical environment and the equilibrium established in such settings . Remarkably, theoretical views have changed overtime, nese views nave Decome more certain ana amDlvalent. I nese views nave Deen integrated to become more determinists, functionalists, more generalizing, and more organizationally rational. It is acknowledgeable that the functional approach has played a huge role towards explaining organizational studies. The challenge posed to Functional-structural approach by Postmodernism Despite the success and dominance of structural functional approach, postmodernism poses a great challenge to its subsistence and persistence. According to the post modernists, their theory is critical on the claims about bjectivity. The idea of grand theory is viewed by the postmodernists as skeptical and is viewed as unwarranted at its very least. This critique posed by the postmodernists to the structural functional approach has hindered the prosperity of this approach in the present times. Despite the importance of structural functional approach to organizational studies, postmodernism presents the dangers that the grand theory can pose, when not viewed as limited perspective when analyzing the society (Kilduff and Mihaela, 94). To some extent, the functional approach is not applicable in the postmodern society ecause norms and family structure within the society have incredibly changed overtime (Lord, 509), the changes realized in the postmodern times can be attributed as a move towards the idea of a new explanation of organizational studies. From this perspective, the use of functional approach is not useful anymore since it does not apply to postmodern society. The functional approach has been highly criticized for being more of teleological. It is has been viewed to be reverse the cause and effect order. Functional structural theory has faced a lot of criticisms from other social theories articularly the postmodernists. The most prevalent criticism faced by the social structural function from the postmodernists and other sociological notions, is the fact that most of these notions particularly the postmodern theory criticize the structural functional theory on the grounds that the concept systems of this theory offers too much unnecessary weight to consensus and integration, hence neglecting the concept of interdependence and conflict. In this theory, Parsons gave no satisfactory explanation as to how actors exercise their agency in antagonism to inculcation and socialization of the accepted norms. Generally, the structural functional theory does not offer a credible explanation as to why individuals accept or choose some values and norms within the society. From a postmodernist approach, the prominence of structural functional approach is heading to its end. This is based on the view that feminism is on a high rise and has launched critics on the functionalism theory. Considering that the functional approach did not incorporate the suppression of women in the society and the family, feminism and the post-modernist are at high opposition to the existence of this theory. Desplte tne Tact tnat Parsons aescrlDea sltuatlons tnat lead to tne rlse 0T women state of affairs and that some feminists agree that he provided accurate information concerning these situations. Parsons admits that he oversimplified his analysis concerning women in relation to family and work; moreover he postulates that he focused more towards the positive functions within the family rather than its dysfunctions towards women. The postmodernist criticize this theory because it lacks the feminist stability. Arguably, the postmodernist are likely to pose a huge challenge o the prevalence of this theory because it views the theory as a one that does not incorporate all the necessary elements. One major difference between modernism and any other notion paradigm in psychology particularly the functional approach is the fact that; whereas the structural functional approach seek universal laws for social behavior important in the study of organizational studies, the postmodernism views that the aim of social science should not be generalizability but rather innovation and discovery (Kilduff and Mihaela, 97). Remarkably, the catastrophe experienced in functional approach while analyzing rganizational studies can be attributed to postmodernism. Postmodernism is more likely to pose a huge challenge to the prevalence of functional approach, according to postmodernism, multiple contingencies upset outcomes while the historical and the cultural conditions can be ignored by people are well conversant with this knowledge. Conclusions In conclusion, it is evident that functional structural approach has dominated organizational studies. Despite its prevalence, postmodernism post a huge challenge to its development and growth.

The Human Genome Project Essay -- Genetics Science Papers

The Human Genome Project The Human Genome Project is one of the most widely discussed topics in genetics today. The United States human genome project began in 1990, when the $3 billion dollar project to map 3 billion DNA base pairs was announced.(4) When the initial funding was provided, it was anticipated that the project would require 15 years to complete and the target date for completion was 2005.(8) Recent technological advances have shortened that time period, and it is now estimated that the program will be complete by 2003.(1) The program now has been expanded to an international effort involving research facilities in France, Germany, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States. There are also several private companies that are sequencing the genome also. The majority of the funding for the United States human genome project has come from the Department of Energy's (DOE) Office of Biological and Environmental Research and the National Institute of Health (NIH). The objective of the project is t o create a DNA sequence library for a representative sample of the human genome. Such a reference library would prove to be priceless from a research standpoint, as well as an applied perspective. This library will aid in the identification of specific mutations which cause a distinct disorder or disease. If the normal base pair can be inserted in place of the abnormal one, gene therapy could become a reality. Along with this new technology comes several problems, both technical and ethical. The ethical issues play a major role in the use and possible implications of this technology. A special committee was formed to evaluate these ethical issues and to make recommendations regarding them. This committee was given the tit... ... http://www.ornl.gov/hgmis/publicat/hgn/v10n1/04bacend.html 5. U.S. Dept. of Energy. Human Genome News. "Five years of Progress in the Human Genome Project", Obtained from the WWW 09/07/99: 12/95: http://www.ornl.gov/TechResources/Human_Genome/publicat/hgn/v7n3/04progre.html 6. UNESCO. The Gene Letter. "UNESCO Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights, July 1997", Obtained from the WWW 09/07/99:07/99: http://www.geneletter.org/0398/UNESCO.htm 7. U.S. Dept. of Energy. Human Genome Project: "Ethical, Legal and Social Issues (ELSI) of the Human Genome Project", Obtained from the WWW 08/31/99: 08/31/99: http://www.ornl.gov/TechResources/HumanGenome/resource/elsi.html 8. U.S. Dept. of Energy. Human Genome News. "U.S. HGP on Fast Track for Early Completion", Obtained from the WWW 8/31/99:2/1/99: http://www.ornl.gov/hgmis/publicat/hgn/v10n1/01goals.html

International Business Environment Essay

Venturing into new business and market frontiers like Malaysia requires extensive understanding of the environment in terms of the political establishment, business potential, legal and regulatory framework, and availability of resources, socio-cultural aspects and to an extent geographical position and infrastructural development of the country. The research and analysis of these key and crucial factors are important in analysing the potential and business environment of Malaysia. Malaysia possesses unique features and characteristics which are different from any other nation and it’s therefore essential to scan and research the market. Geographically located in Eastern Asia, Malaysia has been one of Asia fastest developing markets in the last half century. Malaysia is among the â€Å"Asian Tigers† a terminology given to the Asian economies which transformed from third world nation status to middle income nations within a short span thanks to sound and effective economic policies. It has a sizeable population of around 28. 3 million with diverse ethnic composition largely comprising the Ethnic Malays, Indians and Chinese population (CIA fact book, 2010). Similarly Malaysia is a developing nation with growing high per capita income making it a potential market for introduction of any business. The nation has well established and developed financial markets and excellent world class infrastructure in transport air and sea and moreover it’s known worldwide for the technology superiority and advancements. It’s highly developed commercial and manufacture sectors makes it a target for many international business. Malaysia has enjoyed a relative stable political stability which has been instrumental in spurring its economy and attracting foreign firms. It’s also a competitive business environment with flexible legal and regulatory framework making it easy to operate business. Therefore it’s very important to explore and understand these aspects and others in detail to ensure conclusion and market analysis of Malaysia is obtained through in depth understanding of the market. This would enable the company to undertake its strategies and plans effectively and efficiently in Malaysia. The paper tries to look some of the aspects mentioned above in more detail. Conclusively, In order to expand business to other countries, many factors should be put into consideration so as to ensure there is professional development of the business. Critical analysis, exploring and report writing is therefore important considering these issue and thus should be undertaken respectively. Introduction In business, the understanding of a given culture in which business is to be done and be based is very critical and thus important. With connection to these some aspects have to be considered so as to know where and which country qualifies better for allocation of such business. These can be well achieved through exploring and analysing the business environment of a prospective country. For instance, Culture and cultural practices are very important and have to be understood in order to make sure all the selling strategies have been able to offer good fruits in the business (Sandra, 2001, p 58). This paper thus comes up with the choosing of Malaysia as an example of a country on which as the Business Development Manager of Australia have chosen with the aim of expanding business. Therefore this paper discusses the critical analysis and the report obtained from exploring and analysing business environment of Malaysia which in return helps in determining where the country fits in the complexity of international business environment. Many factors should be put into consideration so as to decide whether the business will effectively run smoothly (Dunning, 1998, p 98). Country Profile Situated in Eastern Asia Geographically Malaysia covers approximately area of 392,748 square Kms, this is lightly larger than New Mexico in United States and a population of 26 Million people (C.  I. A fact book, 2010) this is a sizeable population which can be viable for any target market and introduction of business ventures. In Malaysia Islam is the pre-dominant and largest religion practised by the ethnic Malays but the nation is a multi-ethnic society and has other religious beliefs like Buddhism, Hinduism, Christianity and Taoism practised by the minority ethnic population of Indians, Chinese and a small proportion of immigrant labour force. Ethnic Composition of Malaysia has around 53. 3% ethnic Malays, Chinese 26%, Indigenous 11. 8%, Indians 7. 7% others 1. % and Islamic religion has 60. 4% followers, Buddhism 9. 2%, Christianity 9. 1%, Hinduism 6. 3% ( CIA fact book ,2010) Its essential to know the ethnic and religious composition in order to understand the fabric of the society properly. Bahasa Melayu is the official language along with Chinese , English and Tamil are the languages used pre-dominantly in Malaysia and it’s a plus to have English as one of the languages as it makes it easy for transactions and communication when the business and corporations aspiring to penetrate Malaysian market are from English speaking nations. The country is contained of two distinct parts which are separated by the South China Sea whereby, the parts, the east and west share similar landscape in that they have coastal plains which rise due to densely forested hill and mountains. Malaysia neighbours Indonesia and thus the two countries share some cultures (Carsrud & Brannback 2007, p, 54). This is due to the Indians ethnic community which is quite well represented in Malaysia and also it borders countries like Singapore and China. The nation is well endowed with natural resources, good infrastructural development in communications technology and transport and a good coast line with proximity to major sea routes. Economy Malaysia transformed from a third world economy to middle income economy within a duration of around three decades and the nation shifted from being a primarily agricultural economic based to an industrial and commercial economic hub. The country actively participates in international trade which has been enhanced by the shipping routes around its coastline and has well established manufacturing sector. Malaysia produces top exporter of manufactured goods, palm oil, rubber, petroleum and liquefied natural gas. Malaysia is considered as a newly industrialized country although not a developed one but on the way to become one and research shows its GPD per capita ( of around $14000) in the year 2008 was recorded high thus ranking the country 48th in the world and 2nd in Southeast Asia (Drucker, 2007, p , 23). The nation has a GDP of $313 billion and an average GDP annual growth rate of 5. 9 %( Ibp USA, 2008, p. 7 ) The GDP growth rate has been consistent over a long period of time and the economy has shown resiliency during the wake of economic crisis like the Asian economic crisis and recent global recession. It’s known for the developed commercial sector producing and exporting electronic products and other advanced technological goods. Export market is $158 billion and its currency Malaysian currency (ringgit) exchanges at $3 (Ibp US, 2008 p. 18) The exchange rate of ringgit against major currencies has been consistent and stable avoiding currency fluctuations. Malaysia has a floating exchange rate although it has pegged its currency to the dollar. Similarly the nation is a member of almost all major trading blocs around the region and Asia, from WTO to regional economic trade blocs making it an open and very competitive market. Political System  Since Malaysia gained independence its economic performance has been high in comparison with other Asian nations due to its stability and has avoided military coups ( Nayland,2001,p. 164) Another critical factor to consider is the political system of the country. Politics and economy are intertwined and interrelated and political stability determines the environment which economy and business operates. The political stability of the democratic nation like Malaysia makes it an attractive place for investment. Malaysia is a federal constitutional elective monarchy having a head of state is referred as the king of the nation who is elected to a five year term and a parliamentary system of government headed by prime minister and has a healthy democratic space with opposition parties Parliamentary elections are held after every five years and thus only registered voters of age 21 and above are allowed to vote for the members of the House of Representatives (Ahmad & Seymour, 2008, p, 76). Legal and Regulatory Framework MIDA (Malaysian Industrial Development Authority) is a body charged with promoting investments activities both local and foreign, and to helped and guided investments in the business environment (Cheang Lo, 1997, p. 57) This is one of the bodies created by the government to eliminate the bureaucracy in obtaining legal documentation in the country by simplifying the licensing and regulatory process of businesses which wish venture in that country. Although any business needs to go through the required government process in obtaining licences the government has created an environment where restrictions and licensing red tape has been reduced significantly. Socio- Cultural Environment The socio-cultural environment in Malaysia is well defined by its ethnic composition and religious diversity. Malaysia is pluralistic society with Malays being the majority and the other significant minority group like the Chinese, Indians and Tamils each with different religion. With such a rich cultural heritage, acquiring the relevant skills and cultural knowledge in order to conduct business in Malaysia is crucial to your success (Communicaid, n. d) the socio-cultural environment settings in Malaysia although comprising different ethnic groups and religious affiliations is a conservative society and thus it’s important for people to understand how to address the people. Each particular ethnic group has its own mode of communication and interaction and it’s critical to ensure you understand the culture and behaviour of each ethnic group in Malaysia. Generalizations of the all Malaysians while conducting business may be costly to the business as it may be viewed negatively by other ethnic groups. For instance â€Å"the Chinese for example expect punctuality, whereas both ethnic Malays and Indian business people have a more relaxed attitude towards time (Communicaid, n. ) In regard to the consumer attitudes towards products and goods there is a general tendencies among Malays of regarding goods produced locally to be somehow inferior to the goods made by the developed nations which are advanced more than them and hence produce quality products. Quality is sensitive to Malays consumers. â€Å" Malaysian local products are regarded with skepticism compared to south Korea products but are believed to be of high quality in comparison with goods fr om India ,china, Mexico and Thailand. (Ghazali et al,2008, p. 7) Resources  The country is well endowed with natural resources and enough raw materials which it has continued to exploit in its quest to develop its economy. During most of the 1970’s and 1980’s Malaysia was the largest producer and exporter of tin, tropical timber, palm oil and natural rubber (Vincent, 2005, p. 10) Although Currently, Malaysia is not a major producer of some of the raw materials like natural rubber it still has abundant supply of tin, timber palm oil and natural rubber which has been used effectively by the government in exploring and developing its economy. Malaysia has transformed itself from primarily agricultural based economy to an industrial, technological and commercial giant due to the availability of human resources in the country. Malaysia has been known to be open in attracting foreign labour in its economy to make it competitive and potent. However there have been slight problems in obtaining and retaining skilled labour from Malaysia. â€Å"In contrast to this 44% of Australians firms reported difficulty in maintaining skilled labour in Malaysia (Nayland, 2001, p. 0) Ethical and Social Responsibility â€Å"More than 60% of managers in Malaysia were supportive of the view that that to improve market share and public image their firms would have to show there are social responsible (Harrison, 2005, p. 208) Malaysian socio-cultural structure is based on conservative setting like Islamic religious dimension on the Malay population which actually sees the aspect of giving back to them community is a responsibility rather than f avour. Corporations and business doing business in Malaysia are therefore obligated to be active in supporting projects in communities to uplift their image of sharing with the community the profits obtained from them. Conclusion and Recommendations Having noted some of the major findings and factors affecting the level of entrepreneurial activities from research that has been done, it will be necessary to agree on the need of making Malaysia one of the key standards of venturing into any fast developing markets. Also, it is necessary to note that, some of the factors that affect the level of business and entrepreneurship in this country tend to have direct impacts on other economic activities and performances and they have been identified as positive and potent. Once all the factors have been keenly identified and outlined, it becomes quite easy to address them respectively so as to attain overall economic performance and development (Datamonitor, 2009, p, 31). From the analysis and research based on political stability, economic performance and availability or resources the general picture can be concluded that Malaysia is a potential and viable environment to conduct any business of any nature. Although it may have some challenges and obstacles, the business environment and its market potential makes it a conducive environment to establish business ventures and has a potential market for growth. The nation is also strategically placed to penetrate other markets in Asia.

The Invigorating Meadow Essay - 1230 Words

The Invigorating Meadow The burgeoning green of the meadow in May was gloriously lush, radiant really. I searched for enough descriptive words to distinguish the greens I saw—emerald and viridian; olive, pea and lime; verdigris and malachite. I became giddy surrounded by robust greenery. Indeed, it was a green felicity, and the trials and doldrums of winter disappeared with the exhilaration I felt watching emerging blades, vines, and shoots. As the meadow’s growth flourished, I kept track of the succession of plants. Golden coins of flowering dandelions carpeted the new grass for a week before fluffing into white globes of seed- carrying filaments. The grasses grew taller. Buttercups and blue flag iris colored the meadow with gold†¦show more content†¦I have a special fondness for Homer’s painting In the Mowing. In the foreground, three boys, two apparently nine or ten years old, and one just past the toddler stage, stand in the knee-deep grass and daisies of a large hay meadow. Halting in their wanderings, they look toward the distant tree-edged expanse in the background where a figure in red — mother, father, or sibling —waves to them. The light, at a low angle, burnishes the grass to brassy gold. It seems to me, the boys are abroad early, before sunrise and the start of chores, perhaps looking for nests, checking on the wild strawberry patches, or discovering the business of the in habitants of the fields. The waving figure may be calling them to breakfast. Homer portrays a simple moment of childhood freedom and exploration. The painting touches my spirit, for a hay meadow is one of the richest and best places to meet the natural world. On summer afternoons when the sun beats full on the meadow, I like to poke about the edges between the grass and the woods. Here, in a damp corner, I find tiny tight pink flower clusters atop plants with arrow-shaped leaves. 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